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Key Takeaways
- MLA 9th edition uses a flexible, container-based framework that applies a single citation structure to all source types, from printed books to online videos.
- Every MLA Works Cited entry follows the same nine core elements in the same order: author, title of source, title of container, other contributors, version, number, publisher, publication date, and location.
- In-text citations in MLA style use the author’s last name and a page number (or equivalent locator) in parentheses; no punctuation separates them.
- When a required element is missing from a source, such as an author or publication date, it is simply omitted from the citation rather than replaced with a placeholder.
The 9th edition of the Modern Language Association (MLA)’s handbook is uniquely suited for researchers in literature, language studies, cultural studies, etc. It gives concrete examples of how you can cite different kinds of sources, not just journal articles. Our previous post already explains the basics of MLA citation style. Today, we’re going to look at some practical MLA reference examples.
Contents
- Glossary of Key Terms
- What Is MLA Style and Who Uses It?
- The Nine Core Elements of MLA Citations
- How Do MLA In-Text Citations Work?
- How to Cite Books in MLA Style
- Citing a Chapter or Essay in an Edited Book
- What Is the Correct MLA Format for Journal Articles?
- Citing Websites and Online Content
- Newspaper and Magazine Articles
- Online Video and Streaming Content
- Citing Artwork and Visual Materials
- Citing Music: Sound Recordings and Sheet Music
- Citing Social Media Posts and Online Discussions
- Citing Government Documents and Reports
- Theses and Dissertations
- Essential MLA Formatting Rules for the Works Cited Page
- Quick-Reference Guide: MLA Citation Formats by Source Type
- What Are the Most Common MLA Citation Mistakes?
- Frequently Asked Questions
Glossary of Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
| Citation | A reference within the text or at the end of a document that identifies the source of borrowed information. |
| Container | In MLA 9, a container is the larger work that holds the source you are citing. A journal is the container for an article; a streaming platform is the container for a film. |
| Core Elements | The nine standard pieces of information that MLA 9 defines for every citation: author, title of source, title of container, other contributors, version, number, publisher, publication date, and location. |
| DOI | Digital Object Identifier. A permanent alphanumeric code assigned to an online document, used as a stable locator in place of a URL. |
| In-Text Citation | A brief parenthetical reference placed directly in the body of a paper, pointing the reader to the full entry in the Works Cited list. |
| Locator | The element in an MLA citation that identifies exactly where in a source the cited material appears. Page numbers are the most common locator; time stamps, paragraph numbers, or section numbers are used when pages are unavailable. |
| MLA | Modern Language Association. The professional organization that publishes the MLA Handbook and the citation style widely used in humanities disciplines. |
| MLA 9 | The 9th edition of the MLA Handbook, published in 2021, which introduced and refined the container-based citation framework. |
| Nested Container | A second container that holds the first container. For example, a journal article accessed via a database has two containers: the journal itself and the database. |
| Works Cited | The alphabetical list of all sources cited in a paper, placed at the end of the document. |
| Optional Elements | Supplementary information such as the original publication date or the city of publication that writers may add to a citation when that information is relevant to their argument. |
What Is MLA Style and Who Uses It?
MLA style is the citation and formatting system developed by the Modern Language Association. It is the standard in literature, language studies, cultural studies, and the humanities more broadly. Unlike APA style, which emphasizes the date of a source, MLA prioritizes authorship and the exact location of borrowed material within a text.
The 9th edition of the MLA Handbook, released in 2021, updated the system around the concept of containers: larger works that hold individual sources. This framework means that one set of rules applies across all source types, whether a researcher is citing a sonnet, a YouTube video, or a newspaper editorial.
When Should You Use MLA Style?
Use MLA style when your instructor, journal, or institution specifies it. It is the dominant style in the following disciplines:
- English language and literature
- Comparative literature and linguistics
- Media studies and cultural criticism
- Foreign language studies
- Interdisciplinary humanities research
The Nine Core Elements of MLA Citations
Every MLA Works Cited entry is built from the same nine elements, listed in the same order. Include as many as apply to your source; omit those that do not apply. Each element is followed by specific punctuation.
| Element | Punctuation After | Notes |
| 1. Author | Period | Last name first for the first author listed; subsequent authors are first name first. |
| 2. Title of Source | Period | Italicize standalone works (books, films); use quotation marks for works within larger works (articles, chapters, episodes). |
| 3. Title of Container | Comma | Italicize the container title. |
| 4. Other Contributors | Comma | Introduced by a descriptive phrase: edited by, directed by, translated by, performed by. |
| 5. Version | Comma | Edition numbers, revised versions, director’s cuts, etc. |
| 6. Number | Comma | Volume and issue numbers for journals; season and episode numbers for TV shows. |
| 7. Publisher | Comma | Omit for periodicals and websites named after the publisher. |
| 8. Publication Date | Comma or Period | Use a comma if a locator follows; a period if it is the last element before the locator. |
| 9. Location | Period | Page numbers (pp.), URLs, DOIs, or time stamps depending on the source. |
Important: Only include the elements that are relevant to your source. A source may have one container or two (nested containers). When a required element is missing, simply move to the next one.
How Do MLA In-Text Citations Work?
MLA in-text citations are parenthetical: they appear in the body of the paper, immediately after the borrowed material. The basic format is the author’s last name followed by the page number, with no comma between them.
| Situation | Format | Example |
| Author named in signal phrase | Page number only in parentheses | Smith argues that colonial narratives persist (47). |
| Author not named in signal phrase | Last name and page number in parentheses | Colonial narratives persist in modern media (Smith 47). |
| Two authors | Both last names and page number | (Rodriguez and Kim 112) |
| Three or more authors | First author’s last name, then et al. | (Patel et al. 203) |
| No author | Shortened title in quotation marks or italics | (“Digital Divide” 3) |
| No page number (website) | Paragraph number or section heading | (Johnson, par. 4) |
| Same author, multiple works | Last name, shortened title, page number | (Achebe, Things 88) |
| Corporate or government author | Organization name or abbreviation | (WHO 12) |
Block Quotations in MLA Style
Quotations of more than four lines of prose, or more than three lines of poetry, are formatted as block quotations. Begin the quotation on a new line, indent the entire block one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Place the parenthetical citation after the final punctuation mark of the quotation.
How to Cite Books in MLA Style
Books are the most straightforward source type to cite in MLA. The author’s last name, followed by a comma and the first name, opens the entry. The title is italicized and followed by a period.
Single-Author Book
Format:
Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.
Example:
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Knopf, 1987.
Book with an Edition Number
Format:
Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Edition, Publisher, Year.
Example:
Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 4th ed., Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
Edited Book (No Single Author)
Format:
Editor Last Name, First Name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.
Example:
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., editor. The Classic Slave Narratives. Penguin Books, 1987.
Translated Book
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Translated by First Name Last Name, Publisher, Year.
Example:
Kafka, Franz. The Trial. Translated by Mike Mitchell, Oxford University Press, 2009.
Book Published in Multiple Volumes
Format:
Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. vol. #, Publisher, Year.
Example:
Churchill, Winston. The Second World War. vol. 3, Houghton Mifflin, 1950.
Citing a Chapter or Essay in an Edited Book
When citing a specific chapter or essay within a larger edited volume, the chapter title goes in quotation marks and the book title is italicized. The book serves as the container.
Chapter in an Edited Collection
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by First Name Last Name, Publisher, Year, pp. #-#.
Example:
Anzaldua, Gloria. “How to Tame a Wild Tongue.” Borderlands, edited by Norma Alarcon, Aunt Lute Books, 1987, pp. 53-64.
Introduction, Preface, or Foreword
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. Introduction. Title of Book, by Original Author First Name Last Name, Publisher, Year, pp. #-#.
Example:
Bloom, Harold. Introduction. Invisible Man, by Ralph Ellison, Modern Library, 1994, pp. xi-xxvii.
What Is the Correct MLA Format for Journal Articles?
For journal articles, the article title is in quotation marks and the journal name is italicized. Include the volume number, issue number, date, and page range. Add a DOI or stable URL when the article was accessed online.
Print Journal Article
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Month Year, pp. #-#.
Example:
Butler, Judith. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution.” Theatre Journal, vol. 40, no. 4, Dec. 1988, pp. 519-531.
Online Journal Article with DOI
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Month Year, pp. #-#. doi:XXXXXXX.
Example:
Hayles, N. Katherine. “Hyper and Deep Attention.” Profession, vol. 2007, no. 1, 2007, pp. 187-199. doi:10.1632/prof.2007.2007.1.187.
Article Accessed Through a Database (Nested Containers)
When an article was found through a database, the database is a second, nested container. Add the database name (italicized) and the DOI or URL after the first container information.
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Journal Name, vol. #, no. #, Month Year, pp. #-#. Database Name, doi:XXXXXXX.
Example:
Said, Edward. “Orientalism Reconsidered.” Cultural Critique, vol. 1, no. 1, Fall 1985, pp. 89-107. JSTOR, doi:10.2307/1354282.
Citing Websites and Online Content
Online sources often lack some core elements, such as an author or a publication date. Simply omit missing elements. Always include an access date when no publication date is available, introduced by the phrase Accessed followed by the date.
Webpage or Article on a Website
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Day Month Year published, URL. Accessed Day Month Year.
Example:
Crockett, Emily. “The Long History of Filibuster Reform.” Vox, 3 Apr. 2017, www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/4/3/filibuster-history. Accessed 12 Jan. 2024.
Webpage with No Author Listed
Format:
“Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Day Month Year published, URL. Accessed Day Month Year.
Example:
“Climate Science Glossary.” National Geographic, www.nationalgeographic.com/climate-glossary. Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.
Blog Post
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Post.” Blog Name, Day Month Year, URL.
Example:
Pinker, Steven. “The Decline of Violence.” Language Log, 14 Nov. 2011, languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3530.
Newspaper and Magazine Articles
For newspaper and magazine articles, include the day, month, and year of publication. For print sources, include page numbers with the section letter if applicable. For online versions, include the URL.
Print Newspaper Article
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Newspaper Name, Day Month Year, p. or pp. #.
Example:
Rich, Motoko. “Literacy Debate: Online, R U Really Reading?” The New York Times, 27 July 2008, pp. A1, A12.
Online Newspaper Article
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Newspaper Name, Day Month Year, URL.
Example:
Hesse, Monica. “What the “Little Women” Debate Gets Wrong About Amy March.” The Washington Post, 26 Dec. 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/what-the-little-women-debate-gets-wrong-about-amy-march.
Magazine Article
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Magazine Name, Day Month Year, pp. #-#.
Example:
Gladwell, Malcolm. “The Tipping Point.” The New Yorker, 3 June 1996, pp. 32-38.
Online Video and Streaming Content
For online videos, the person or organization that uploaded the video is treated as the author. The platform (such as YouTube or Vimeo) is the container. Include the upload date and URL.
YouTube or Online Video
Format:
“Title of Video.” Platform, uploaded by Screen Name or Channel, Day Month Year, URL.
Example:
“The Art of Rhetoric: Ethos, Pathos, Logos.” YouTube, uploaded by TED-Ed, 10 Oct. 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=uVhYcVqkRNU.
Film or TV Show on a Streaming Platform
Format:
Title of Film or Episode. Directed by First Name Last Name, Production Company, Year. Streaming Platform, URL.
Example for a film:
Parasite. Directed by Bong Joon-ho, Barunson E&A, 2019. Mubi, www.mubi.com/films/parasite.
Example for a TV episode:
“The Sopranos Pilot.” The Sopranos, created by David Chase, season 1, episode 1, HBO, 10 Jan. 1999. HBO Max, www.hbomax.com.
Podcast Episode
Format:
“Title of Episode.” Podcast Name, hosted by First Name Last Name, Season #, Episode #, Publisher, Day Month Year, URL.
Example:
“The Problem with Passive Voice.” Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips, hosted by Mignon Fogarty, episode 673, Macmillan, 14 Feb. 2019, www.quickanddirtytips.com/grammar-girl.
Citing Artwork and Visual Materials
For original physical artworks, the location element is the museum or gallery and city. For images of artworks viewed online, add the website name as a second container and include the URL. Always make clear whether you consulted the original or a reproduction.
Original Artwork in a Museum
Format:
Artist Last Name, First Name. Title of Artwork. Year, Museum Name, City.
Example:
Kahlo, Frida. The Two Fridas. 1939, Museo de Arte Moderno, Mexico City.
Artwork Viewed Online
Format:
Artist Last Name, First Name. Title of Artwork. Year, Museum Name, City. Website Name, URL.
Example:
van Gogh, Vincent. The Starry Night. 1889, Museum of Modern Art, New York. MoMA, www.moma.org/collection/works/79802.
Photograph
Format:
Photographer Last Name, First Name. Title or Description. Year, Collection or Archive, URL.
Example:
Adams, Ansel. Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico. 1941, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
Citing Music: Sound Recordings and Sheet Music
MLA distinguishes between a sound recording (an audio performance) and sheet music (a printed musical score). Always clarify in your citation which format you consulted.
Sound Recording: Album
Format:
Artist Last Name, First Name. Title of Album. Record Label, Year.
Example:
Davis, Miles. Kind of Blue. Columbia Records, 1959.
Sound Recording: Individual Song
Format:
“Title of Song.” Title of Album, by Artist Name, Record Label, Year.
Example:
“So What.” Kind of Blue, by Miles Davis, Columbia Records, 1959.
Song Accessed via a Streaming Service
Format:
“Title of Song.” Title of Album, by Artist Name, Record Label, Year. Streaming Service, URL.
Example:
“Hallelujah.” Various Positions, by Leonard Cohen, Columbia Records, 1984. Spotify, open.spotify.com/track/3NqhfX0d4s4tJRhhlR6VSH.
Sheet Music (Printed Musical Score)
Format:
Composer Last Name, First Name, composer. Title of Work. Year composed. Title of Collection, edited by First Name Last Name, vol. #, Publisher, Year published, pp. #-#.
Example:
Chopin, Frederic, composer. Nocturne in E-flat Major, Op. 9, No. 2. 1831. Complete Nocturnes for Piano, edited by Willard Palmer, Alfred Music, 1993, pp. 8-12.
Citing Social Media Posts and Online Discussions
Social media content can be cited in MLA. Use the real name of the account holder when known, followed by the username in parentheses. The post itself (or its first few words) serves as the title, in quotation marks.
| Platform | Format | Key Notes |
| Post (general) | Last Name, First Name (@username). “First few words of post . . . .” Platform, Day Month Year, URL. | Include the username after the real name in parentheses. |
| Comment or reply | Last Name, First Name. Comment on “Title of Post,” Platform, Day Month Year, URL. | Identify the parent post with its title. |
| Profile or page | Account Name. Platform, URL. Accessed Day Month Year. | Use when citing the profile itself, not a specific post. |
Example (a post):
Obama, Barack (@BarackObama). “No one is born hating another person because of the color of his skin . . . .” Twitter, 13 Aug. 2017, twitter.com/barackobama/status/896523232098078720.
Citing Government Documents and Reports
For government documents, the government body (national, state, or agency) functions as the author when no individual author is credited. List the largest body first, then the sub-agency.
Government Report or Document
Format:
Government Name, Agency Name. Title of Document. Publisher, Year, URL.
Example:
United States, Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations. Hearings on Foreign Assistance. GPO, 1968.
Report by an Organization or Institution
Format:
Organization Name. Title of Report. Publisher, Year, URL.
Example:
World Health Organization. Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health. WHO, 2018, www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/en.
Theses and Dissertations
Treat unpublished theses and dissertations as manuscripts. Include the type of document (MA thesis or PhD dissertation), the institution, and the year. For documents accessed through a database, add the database name as the container.
Unpublished Dissertation
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Dissertation. Degree type, University Name, Year.
Example:
Lee, Sujin. Postcolonial Memory and Narrative Resistance in Contemporary Korean Fiction. PhD dissertation, University of California Berkeley, 2019.
Dissertation from a Database
Format:
Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Dissertation. Degree type, University Name, Year. Database Name, URL.
Example:
Santos, Marco. Magical Realism and the Postcolonial Condition. PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2015. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, www.proquest.com/dissertations/docview/1745678234.
Essential MLA Formatting Rules for the Works Cited Page
The Works Cited page has specific formatting requirements that are separate from the citation format for each source type.
| Formatting Rule | Specification |
| Page title | Works Cited, centered at the top of the page; not bold, not italicized. |
| Alphabetization | Entries are alphabetized by the first word of each entry (usually the author’s last name). |
| Hanging indent | The first line of each entry is flush left; subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches. |
| Spacing | Double-space all entries and between entries; no extra space between them. |
| Abbreviations | Use standard abbreviations: vol. (volume), no. (number), pp. (pages), ed. (edition), trans. (translated by). |
| Months | Abbreviate months with more than four letters: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. Spell out May, June, and July. |
| DOIs vs. URLs | Prefer DOIs over URLs when both are available; DOIs are more stable. Write DOIs in hyperlink format beginning with doi: |
| Access dates | Include only when the source has no publication date or is likely to change over time. |
Quick-Reference Guide: MLA Citation Formats by Source Type
The following table summarizes the core structure for each source type covered in this guide.
| Source Type | Author Element | Title Format | Key Container |
| Single-author book | Last, First. | Italicized | N/A |
| Edited book | Editor Last, First, editor. | Italicized | N/A |
| Book chapter | Last, First. | “Quoted” | Italicized book title |
| Print journal article | Last, First. | “Quoted” | Italicized journal name |
| Online article with DOI | Last, First. | “Quoted” | Italicized journal + DOI |
| Database article | Last, First. | “Quoted” | Journal; then database |
| Webpage | Last, First. | “Quoted” | Italicized website name |
| Online video | Channel or uploader. | “Quoted” | Italicized platform |
| Podcast episode | Host or producer. | “Quoted” | Italicized podcast title |
| Film (streaming) | Director name. | Italicized | Streaming platform |
| Original artwork | Artist Last, First. | Italicized | Museum and city |
| Online artwork | Artist Last, First. | Italicized | Museum + website |
| Sound recording (album) | Artist Last, First. | Italicized | Record label |
| Sheet music | Composer Last, First, composer. | Italicized | Score collection |
| Newspaper (print) | Last, First. | “Quoted” | Italicized paper name |
| Government report | Government; Agency. | Italicized | Publisher |
| Dissertation (unpublished) | Last, First. | Italicized | University and degree |
| Social media post | Last, First (@username). | “First words…” | Italicized platform |
What Are the Most Common MLA Citation Mistakes?
These are the errors most frequently found in student and researcher papers. Reviewing this list before submitting a manuscript can save significant revision time.
| Mistake | Incorrect | Correct |
| Comma between author and page number in in-text citation | (Smith, 47) | (Smith 47) |
| Italicizing the title of a contained work | Smith wrote “The Wasteland” in… | Smith wrote “The Waste Land” in… |
| Placing a period before a parenthetical citation | The poem ends with images of rebirth. (Eliot 433) | The poem ends with images of rebirth (Eliot 433). |
| Omitting the page range for book chapters | pp. 47 (starting page only) | pp. 47-68 (full range) |
| Using p. vs. pp. incorrectly | pp. 47 (single page) | p. 47 (single page), pp. 47-68 (range) |
| Formatting Works Cited as a table of contents | Including section headings, numbers, or extra spacing | Alphabetical list, hanging indent, double-spaced throughout |
| Missing hanging indent | All lines of entry aligned with left margin | First line flush left; all subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches |
| Forgetting the access date for undated web sources | Omitting the date entirely | Adding Accessed Day Month Year at the end of the entry |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between a Works Cited page and a bibliography in MLA?
A Works Cited page lists only the sources you directly cited in your paper. A bibliography, sometimes called an annotated bibliography, may include all sources you consulted during research, even those not directly cited. MLA style most commonly requires a Works Cited page rather than a full bibliography.
How do I cite a source that has no author in MLA?
When a source has no identifiable author, begin the Works Cited entry with the title of the source instead. In the in-text citation, use a shortened version of the title (in quotation marks if the source is a contained work, or in italics if it is a standalone work), followed by the page number if applicable.
How do I handle a source with no publication date?
Simply omit the publication date from the citation. For websites and other online content that may change over time, add an access date at the end of the entry using the format: Accessed Day Month Year. This tells readers when you retrieved the information.
Is MLA 8 the same as MLA 9?
MLA 8, published in 2016, introduced the container framework that MLA 9 builds on. The 9th edition, published in 2021, refined several elements, particularly around the formatting of DOIs, the treatment of online sources, and the handling of inclusive language. Many rules are the same, but writers should confirm with their institution which edition is required and consult the most recent guidance when in doubt.
Can I use MLA style for scientific papers?
MLA style is intended for the humanities. Scientific disciplines typically use APA (psychology, social sciences), AMA (medicine), or CSE (biology and life sciences) styles. If you are writing an interdisciplinary paper that crosses between humanities and science, follow the citation style specified by your instructor, department, or target journal.
